SleepSound
Charting the Nighttime Soundscape and Sleep Quality in Hong Kong through Machine Listening and AI-supported Information Design
- PI : PerMagnus Lindborg
- Co-Is : Sara Lenzi, Shirley XIn Li, Xiao Li
Sleep is an essential part of health. One factor that affects sleep quality is soundscape, the acoustic environment as perceived. In the SleepSound project, we aim to collect field data and harness machine listening for an AI-supported assessment of soundscape quality for healthy sleep. Why is this important? Our initial literature review reveals that there is little known about Hong Kong’s domestic acoustic environment and practically no research has been published on people’s perception of their own nighttime soundscape, or how it may affect sleep. A case in point is the Noise Control Ordinance (1989), which regulates noise from e.g. construction sites but leaves much of neighbourhood environments open to interpretation. Without a deeper understanding of soundscape, solving inevitable conflicts might be left to arbitrary judgements. Given this situation, our project aims to develop methods to chart the nighttime soundscape and its impact on sleep. Restorative sleep is important for everyone and crucial for vulnerable individuals e.g. with a medical condition. The present research project builds on our recent study in a nighttime hospital ward, where patients wore sleep trackers to detect disturbances, and soundscape audio was captured. SleepSound will venture further by focusing on the context of domestic bedrooms for normally healthy residents in Hong Kong.
Publications
- Lindborg PM, Lenzi S, Li SX, Li X, Sarkar P (2025, in review). “SleepSound: Measuring soundscape quality for good sleep”. Proceedings of Forum Acousticum – Euronoise, Spain 2025.
- Lindborg PM, Lenzi S, Li SX, Li X (2025/01). “SleepSound: Charting the Nighttime Soundscape and Sleep Quality in Hong Kong through Machine Listening and AI-supported Information Design”. Proceedings of SoniHED Conference on the Sonification of Health and Environmental Data, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden. [RG link] [blogg w slides & conference pix]
- Lindborg PM (2024/10). SleepSound pilot study.
- Lenzi, Sara, Lindborg, PerMagnus, Spagnol, Simone, Kamphuis, Daan and Özcan, Elif. (2024/06)“Perceived quality of a nighttime hospital soundscape” Noise Mapping, vol. 11, no. 1, 2024, pp. 20240010. https://doi.org/10.1515/noise-2024-0010
- Sara Lenzi, PerMagnus Lindborg, Ningze Han, Simone Spagnol, Daan Kamphuis, Elif Özcan (2023/09). “Disturbed Sleep: Estimating Night-time Sound Annoyance at a Hospital Ward”. Forum Acousticum, 10th Convention of the European Acoustics Association 2023, Torino, Italy.

References
- A. Adan A, Almirall H. Horne & Östberg morningness-eveningness questionnaire: A reduced scale. Personality and Individual Differences. 1991 Jan 1;12(3):241–53.
- Aletta F, De Coensel B, Lindborg P. Human perception of environmental sounds. Research Topic in Frontiers in Psychology. 2021;12:714591.
- Aletta F, Kang J. Towards an urban vibrancy model: A soundscape approach. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2018;15(8):1712.
- Andringa TC. Soundscape and core affect regulation. Proc InterSpeech 2010.
- Axelsson Ö, Nilsson ME, Berglund B. A principal components model of soundscape perception. JASA. 2010;128(5):2836–46.
- Banks S, Dinges DF. Behavioral and Physiological Consequences of Sleep Restriction. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine. 2007 Aug 15;03(05):519–28.
- Barclay NL, Eley TC, Maughan B, Rowe R, Gregory AM. Associations between diurnal preference, sleep quality and externalizing behaviours: a behavioural genetic analysis. Psychol Medicine. 2011 41(5):1029–40.
- Bonnet MH. Effect of sleep disruption on sleep, performance, and mood. Sleep. 1985;8(1).
- Busch-Vishniac I, Ryherd E. Hospital soundscapes: Characterization, impacts, and interventions. Acoustics Today. 2019;15(3):11.
- Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF, Monk TH, Berman SR, Kupfer DJ. The Pittsburgh sleep quality index: A new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Res. 1988 12;28(2).
- Carbone J, Diekelmann S. An update on recent advances in targeted memory reactivation during sleep. Sci Learn. 2024 Apr 15;9(1):1–10.
- Chang KKP, Wong FKY, Chan KL, Wong F, Ho HC, Wong MS, et al. The Impact of the Environment on the Quality of Life and the Mediating Effects of Sleep and Stress. Intl J Envir Res and Public Health. 2020 17(22):8529.
- Chen J, Chan NY, Li CT, Chan JWY, Liu Y, Li SX, et al. Multimodal digital assessment of depression with actigraphy and app in Hong Kong Chinese. Transl Psychiatry. 2024 18;14(1).
- Cheung FTW, Li X, Hui TK, Chan NY, Chan JWY, Wing YK, et al. Circadian preference and mental health outcomes in youth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med Rev. 2023 1;72:101851.
- Corlateanu A, Covantev S, Botnaru V, Sircu V, Nenna R. To sleep, or not to sleep – that is the question, for polysomnography. Breathe. 2017 Jun 1;13(2):137–40.
- Costa PT, McCrae RR. Normal personality assessment in clinical practice: The NEO Personality Inventory. Psychological Assessment. 1992;4(1):5–13.
- EEA. European Environment Agency: Exposure of Europe’s population to environmental noise. Dec. 2021.
- EPA. Environmental Protection Agency of Hong Kong: Neighbourhood Noise; and Guidelines & References 2024.
- Fabbri M, Beracci A, Martoni M, Meneo D, Tonetti L, Natale V. Measuring Subjective Sleep Quality: A Review. Intl J Envir Research and Public Health. 2021 18(3):1082.
- Fong DYT, Wong JYH, Huang L. Effect of noise tolerance on non-restorative sleep: a population-based study in Hong Kong. BMJ Open. 2018 Mar 1;8(3):e020518.
- Ford ES, Cunningham TJ, Croft JB. Trends in Self-Reported Sleep Duration among US Adults from 1985 to 2012. Sleep. 2015 May 1;38(5):829–32.
- Gemmeke JF, Ellis DPW, Freedman D, Jansen A, Lawrence W, Moore RC, et al. Audio Set: An ontology and human-labeled dataset for audio events. Proc IEEE ICASSP 2017.
- Gosling SD, Rentfrow PJ, Swann Jr WB. A very brief measure of the Big-Five personality domains. J Research in personality. 2003;37(6):504–28.
- Grandner MA, Patel NP, Gehrman PR, Perlis ML, Pack AI. Problems associated with short sleep: Bridging the gap between laboratory and epidemiological studies. Sleep Med Rev. 2010 1;14(4).
- Helsestart. Global Insomnia Statistics in 2022 & 2024. Helsestart.no, 2024.
- Hou Y, Ren Q, Zhang H, Mitchell A, Aletta F, Kang J, et al. AI-based soundscape analysis: Jointly identifying sound sources and predicting annoyance. JASA 2023 15;154(5):3145–57.
- Ibáñez V, Silva J, Cauli O. A survey on sleep questionnaires and diaries. Sleep Medicine. 2018 Feb 1;42:90–6.
- IEC 60942: 2017 Electroacoustics—Sound Calibrators. Geneva, Switzerland; 2017.
- ISO 12913-1: 2014 Acoustics–Soundscape—Part 1: Definition and Conceptual Framework. International Organization for Standardization: Geneva, Switzerland; 2014.
- ISO 12913-2: 2018 Acoustics–Soundscape–Part 2: Data collection & reporting requirements.
- ISO 12913-3: 2019 Acoustics–Soundscape—Part 3: Data analysis.
- ISO 15666: 2021 Acoustics — Assessment of noise annoyance by means of social and socio-acoustic surveys. 2021
- Jike M, Itani O, Watanabe N, Buysse DJ, Kaneita Y. Long sleep duration and health outcomes: Systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression. Sleep Med Rev. 2018 1;39.
- Kennedy J. [TCD_FVA]. OpenAural. https://www.thingiverse.com/thing:4691843
- Knott K. Noise annoys: Hongkongers driven to distraction by daily din which experts say is making the city sick. South China Morning Post 2023 Mar 5.
- Kong Q, Cao Y, Iqbal T, Wang Y, Wang W, Plumbley MD. PANNs: Large-Scale Pretrained Audio Neural Networks for Audio Pattern Recognition. IEEE/ACM Transactions on Audio, Speech, and Language Processing. 2020;28:2880–94.
- Lai ACK, Mui KW, Wong LT, Law LY. An evaluation model for indoor environmental quality (IEQ) acceptance in residential buildings. Energy & Buildings 2009 1;41(9):930–6.
- Lan L, Tsuzuki K, Liu YF, Lian ZW. Thermal environment and sleep quality: A review. Energy and Buildings. 2017 Aug 15;149:101–13.
- Landry GJ, Best JR, Liu-Ambrose T. Measuring sleep quality in older adults: a comparison using subjective and objective methods. Front Aging Neurosci. 2015 Sep 7
- Langholm C, Byun AJS, Mullington J, Torous J. Monitoring sleep using smartphone data in a population of college students. npj Mental Health Res. 2023 Mar 17;2(1):1–6.
- Lee PMY, Huang B, Liao G, Chan CK, Tai L bun, Tsang CYJ, et al. Changes in physical activity and rest-activity circadian rhythm among Hong Kong community aged population before and during COVID-19. BMC Public Health. 2021 1;21(1):836.
- Lenzi S, Lindborg P, Spagnol S, Kamphuis D, Özcan E. Perceived quality of a nighttime hospital soundscape. Noise Mapping 2024 1;11(1).
- Lenzi S, Sádaba J, Lindborg P. Soundscape in Times of Change: Case Study of a City Neighbourhood During the COVID-19 Lockdown. Frontiers psychol. 2021 12(412).
- Lercher P, Dzhambov AM. Soundscape and Health. In Schulte-Fortkamp et al. eds. Soundscapes: Humans and Their Acoustic Environment. Springer Intl Publishing 2023.
- Lindborg P. Physiological measures regress onto acoustic and perceptual features of soundscapes. Proc ICME3, University of Jyväskylä, Finland 2013.
- Lindborg P. Psychoacoustic, physical, and perceptual features of restaurants: A field survey in Singapore. Applied acoustics. 2015;92:47–60.
- Lindborg P. A taxonomy of sound sources in restaurants. Applied acoustics. 2016;110.
- Lindborg P. Which Timbral Features Granger-Cause Colour Associations to Music? Proc Intl Conf Timbre, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece; 2020. p. 75–8.
- Lindborg P, Caiola V, Chen M, Ciuccarelli P, Lenzi S. Re(de)fining Sonification: Project Classification Strategies in the Data Sonification Archive. J Audio Eng Soc 2024;72.
- Lindborg P, Friberg A. Personality traits bias the perceived quality of sonic environments. Applied Sciences. 2016;6(12):405.
- Lindborg P, Lenzi S, Chen M. Climate data sonification and visualization: An analysis of topics, aesthetics, and characteristics in 32 recent projects. Frontiers Psych 2023;13:1020102.
- Mesaros A, Heittola T, Virtanen T. TUT database for acoustic scene classification and sound event detection. In: 2016 24th European Signal Processing Conference (EUSIPCO) . 2016
- Mitchell A, Erfanian M, Soelistyo C, Oberman T, Kang J, Aldridge R, et al. Effects of Soundscape Complexity on Urban Noise Annoyance Ratings: A Large-Scale Online Listening Experiment. Intl J Envir Research and Public Health. 2022 Jan;19(22):14872.
- Mitchell A, Oberman T, Aletta F, Erfanian M, Kachlicka M, Lionello M, et al. The Soundscape Indices (SSID) Protocol: A Method for Urban Soundscape Surveys. Applied Sciences. 2020 10(7):2397.
- Mitchell A, Oberman T, Aletta F, Kachlicka M, Lionello M, Erfanian M, et al. Investigating urban soundscapes of the COVID-19 lockdown: A predictive soundscape modeling approach. JASA 2021 150(6):4474–88.
- Nag C, Pradhan RK. Impact of lifestyle on circadian orientation and sleep behaviour. Sleep and Biological Rhythms. 2012 10:94–9.
- NCO. Cap. 400 Noise Control Ordinance. Hong Kong Legislation 1989.
- O’Connor D, Kennedy J. An evaluation of 3D printing for the manufacture of a binaural recording device. Applied Acoustics. 2021 1;171:107610.
- Parker JEK, Dockray S. ‘All possible sounds’: speech, music, and the emergence of machine listening. Sound Studies. 2023 3;9(2):253–81.
- Payne SR. The production of a perceived restorativeness soundscape scale. Applied acoustics. 2013;74(2):255–63.
- Pisano G, Lindborg PM. Developing the Open Ambisonics Toolkit: Background, Design, Evaluation. 2024 in review.
- Sancho-Domingo C, Carballo JL, Coloma-Carmona A, Buysse DJ. Brief version of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (B-PSQI) and measurement invariance across gender and age in a population-based sample. Psychol assessment. 2021 33(2):111.
- Schafer RM. The soundscape: our sonic environment & tuning of the world. Destiny 1977.
- Schulte-Fortkamp B, Fiebig A. Soundscape: The Development of a New Discipline. In Soundscapes: Humans and Their Acoustic Environment. Springer Intl Publishing 2023.
- Smith MG, Cordoza M, Basner M. Environmental Noise and Effects on Sleep: An Update to the WHO Systematic Review. Envir Health Persp 2022 130(7):076001.
- Streatfeild J, Smith J, Mansfield D, Pezzullo L, Hillman D. The social and economic cost of sleep disorders. Sleep. 2021 Nov 1;44(11):zsab132.
- Teixeira LR, Pega F, Dzhambov AM, Bortkiewicz A, da Silva DTC, de Andrade CAF, et al. The effect of occupational exposure to noise on ischaemic heart disease, stroke and hypertension. Envir Intl. 2021 1;154:106387.
- To WM, Mak CM, Chung WL. Are the noise levels acceptable in a built environment like Hong Kong? Noise & Health. 2015 Dec;17(79):429.
- Vaswani A, Shazeer, Parmar, Uszkoreit, Llion, Gomez, et al. Attention is all you need. In: Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 2017.
- Wesselius HM, Van Den Ende ES, Alsma J, Ter Maaten JC, Schuit SC, Stassen PM, et al. Quality and quantity of sleep and factors associated with sleep disturbance in hospitalized patients. JAMA internal medicine. 2018;178(9):1201–8.
- Wong WS, Fielding R. Prevalence of insomnia among Chinese adults in Hong Kong: a population-based study. J Sleep Research. 2011;20(1pt1):117–26.
- Xu X, Lian Z. Objective sleep assessments for healthy people in environmental research: A literature review. Indoor Air. 2022 May;32(5):e13034.